Cross-Linking
Description
Cross-Linking is an Oxidation reaction in which bonds form between Carbohydrates, Nucleic Acids; Proteins; and Lipids. The bonds formed during Cross-Linking can be between the same or different Carbohydrates, Proteins or Nucleic Acids or Lipids.
Toxic Effects of Cross-Linking
The underlying toxic effect of undesirable Cross-Linking stems from the fact that the cross-linked molecule cannot assume the correct shape for proper functioning.
Aging Process
Cross-Linking is believed to be a primary cause of the Aging Process (due to excessive Cross-Linking of the body''s Collagen and other Endogenous Proteins). [1]
Cardiovascular System
The “hardening” of the Arteries that is implicit in Atherosclerosis may occur as a result of Cross-Linking of the atherosclerotic plaque that lines the Arteries of persons afflicted with Atherosclerosis. [2]
Excessive Cross-Linking may increase the risk of Hypertension. [3]
Cells
Excessive Cross-Linking activity (via carbonylated Proteins) may inhibit the activity of Proteasomes. [4]
Cells
Excessive Cross-Linking in the Kidneys may be responsible for (diabetic) Nephropathy.
Eyes/Vision
Cross-Linking of the endogenous Proteins in the endogenous Proteins within the Lens of the Eye is the underlying mechanism for the development of Cataracts. [5]
Cross-Linking in the Eyes may cause loss of Eye focus resulting in impaired Eyesight.
Cross-Linking is responsible for the damage to the Retina that leads to (diabetic) Retinopathy. [6]
Immune System
Cross-Linking (specifically the formation of Advanced Glycation End-Products) may increase (chronic) Inflammation. [7]
Excessive Cross-Linking may be involved in the initiation and progression of Melanoma. [8]
Excessive Cross-Linking may be involved in the initiation and progression of Pancreatic Cancer. [9]
Nervous System
Cross-Linking may be involved in the progression of Alzheimer’s Disease. [10]
Respiratory System
Cross-Linking of the Alveoli of the Lungs is the underlying cause of Emphysema.
Skin
Cross-Linking may destroy the Skin’s Fibroblasts. [11]
Cross-Linking (via glycation and carbonylation) may damage the Dermis of the Skin (leading to loss of elasticity, Wrinkles, disorganization of the Collagen content of the Dermis and loss of extracellular matrix). [12]
Scleroderma is characterized by excessive Cross-Linking of the Connective Tissue’s endogenous Proteins. [13]
Wrinkles may occur as a direct result of the Cross-Linking of the Skin''s Collagen. It is estimated that Cross-Linking is responsible for approximately 50% of Wrinkles. [14]
These Substances may Cause Cross-Linking
Aldehydes
Acetaldehyde may cause Cross-Linking. [15]
Acrolein may cause the Cross-Linking of the body’s endogenous Proteins. [16]
Malonaldehyde may (very potently) cause Cross-Linking.
Malondialdehyde may initiate the process of Cross-Linking of the body’s endogenous Proteins.
Carbohydrates
Glucose may cause Cross-Linking of the body''s endogenous Proteins (including Collagen) - it is not possible to eliminate this type of Cross-Linking by reducing dietary Glucose as it occurs due to inefficiencies in the body''s Energy manufacturing mechanism. [17]
Fructose may cause Cross-Linking of the body''s endogenous Proteins even more rapidly than does Glucose: [18]
Albumin is glycosylated ten times more rapidly by Fructose than Glucose.
Hemoglobin is glycosylated five times more rapidly by Fructose than Glucose.
Enzymes
Collagenase may cause Cross-Linking of the body''s Collagen.
Ketones
Ketones are potent Cross-Linking agents. [19]
Minerals
Aluminium may cause Cross-Linking. [20]
Cadmium may cause Cross-Linking. [21]
Excessive Copper may cause Cross-Linking due to its pro-oxidant properties. [22]
Titanium may cause Cross-Linking. [23]
Recreational Substances
Alcohol may stimulate the process of Cross-Linking (via its conversion to Acetaldehyde). [24]
Tobacco smoking may cause Cross-Linking of the body’s endogenous Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) (resulting in the formation of DNA Adducts). [25]
Other Environmental Factors that may Cause Cross-Linking
Cooking Methods
Cooking Methods that involve the use of very high temperature may increase the Cross-Linking of the Proteins and Carbohydrates within the Foods that are exposed to high-temperature Cooking Methods. Ingestion of the Advanced Glycation End-Products (Glycotoxins) from Foods subjected to high-temperature Cooking Methods may increase Cross-Linking process within the body. Examples of unsafe, high-temperature Cooking Methods include: [26]
Barbequing [27]
Frying [28]
Grilling (broiling) [29]
Microwaving [30]
Free Radicals
Most Free Radicals may cause Cross-Linking in various parts of the body:
Hydroxyl Free Radicals may stimulate the Cross-Linking of endogenous Proteins.
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